RESUMEN
Resumen La teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo del desarrollo cognitivo emerge en la psicología europea en la década de los 70, sobre todo a partir de investigaciones de la llamada Escuela de Psicología Social de Ginebra, que alcanzó notable difusión en las décadas siguientes. Representa una postura neopiagetiana crítica que pone el acento en el papel determinante de la interacción sociocognitiva entre iguales (y más específicamente de la confrontación de puntos de vista distintos) en el desarrollo de la inteligencia. En este artículo se analiza la especificidad del constructo que perimitirá determinar con claridad los elementos teóricos que lo definen y analizar las confusiones y malos entendidos a que dio lugar la notable difusión del paradigma en la psicología y la educación. En una segunda parte se reportan diversas ilustraciones experimentales sobre la temática, fruto de la labor de un equipo compacto de investigadores del IRICE (CONICET). Se trata de una selección en torno a tres ejes de extensión del paradigma: el conflicto como promotor del desarrollo de la operacionalidad formal, el microanálisis de los tipos y modalidades de conflicto sociocognitivo, y el papel de este en el aprendizaje de conocimientos y el cambio conceptual. Estas ilustraciones son solo un ejemplo de la vitalidad que el paradigma generó en el seno de este equipo de trabajo, y marcan una evolución que también se registra en el contexto científico global. El artículo también hace referencia a estos aportes, aunque el acento se pone en las investigaciones propias, entendido como una muestra de construcción colaborativa.
Abstract The theory of socio-cognitive conflict emerges in European Psychology in the 1970s, particularly from the research of the social psychology school of Geneve, that had a strong diffusion in the following years. This theory represents a neo-piagetian critical view of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in the sense that the attention is focused on the role of peer socio-cognitive interaction (specifically in the social confrontations of different points of view) enhancing cognitive growth. The value of the socio-cognitive conflict promoting cognitive development lies in the decentration effect that it produces. According to this view, disturbance resulting from socio-cognitive conflicts gives way to a superior state of equilibrium. The first part of the article focuses on the theoretical and methodological analysis of the concept. In that way, two periods are distinguished in the evolution of the paradigm attending the inclusion of the communicational analysis of the verbal exchange between subjects. Also, this analysis refers to many confusions and misunderstandings in the larger application of the paradigm to psychology and education. The aim of the second part is to present some experimental illustrations produced by the IRICE (CONICET) research team's work. These illustrations concern three conceptual axes: the application of the paradigm to the development of the formal-logical intelligence, the microanalysis of modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflict, and the extended application of the paradigm to the knowledge learning and conceptual change. The research reported in the first axis concerns the comparison of two experimental conditions: collaborative (dyads) and individual problem solving task (problems of Raven's test), in a sample of 12-13 year old students. The comparison concerns to the performances both in the experimental treatment and in the individual post-test of equivalent problems applied to all participants. Results show, in both cases, the superiority of the collective condition. The second axis focuses on some studies concerning the modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflicts. Particularly, a system of categories for the analysis of the social behavior of children of different ages (4, 8 and 12 years old) in a block construction task (to build a house) is reported. This system differentiates many kinds of interactional behavior: dissociation, dominance-submission (both lower social coordination), cooperation (implicit and explicit) and collaboration (these three are modalities of higher social coordination). The third axis examines some illustrations referring to the extension of paradigm to the epistemic learning. After some references to the difficulty of this extension to the educational settings, two studies are reported. The first one concerns an experimental comparison between a collaborative learning condition (dyads) and an individual learning condition in university students of Psychology and Physics. Also, two kinds of collaborative learning are considered, one that assures alternating of participation, the incentive of argumentation and the reciprocal evaluation (in other words, the promotion of the socio-cognitive conflict), and one that is carried out without any intervention (spontaneous collaborative learning). Results show the superiority of the promoting socio-cognitive conflict condition upon the others, both in a written production and in individual learning post-tests. In a second research the comparison is between three instructional modalities to teach an epistemic topic: expositive, participative (with teacher's scaffolding) and collaborative (only peers), in students of the first grade of secondary education (13 years old), in samples taken from two schools. Results for individual learning show that there are not great differences between the three modalities when the initial level (pre-test) of cognitive competence is high, but not if the cognitive level is low; here the collaborative condition (without scaffolding) has many difficulties. Finally, the article presents some general conclusions specifically concerning the socio-cognitive conflict.
RESUMEN
Objetivo. Realizar un estudio exploratorio y microanalítico de la interacción colaborativa infantil entre pares, en la realización de dibujos libres (tarea de final abierto). Analizar las características diferenciales de dicho proceso en función del grupo etario y del contexto socioeconómico. Método. Estudio evolutivo transversal en el que participaron 82 niños, agrupados en 41 díadas, de 4, 8 y 12 años, pertenecientes a contextos socioeconómicos favorecido y desfavorecido. Cada díada realizó un dibujo libre colaborativo. El instrumento utilizado fue la observación. La interacción fue analizada desde dos perspectivas: modalidad social de ejecución de la tarea y verbalización específica. En cada caso se aplicó un sistema de categorías diferente. Los datos resultantes se procesaron mediante técnicas de análisis factorial y de clasificación. Resultados. Se evidenciaron tres modalidades interactivas generales: disociativa (asociada mayormente a díadas de 4 años), mixta (colaborativa-asimétrica) y cooperativa (las dos últimas mayormente asociadas a díadas de 8 y 12 años). También se detectaron asociaciones específicas entre modalidad mixta-contexto desfavorecido y modalidad cooperativa-contexto favorecido. Conclusión. El trabajo aporta nueva evidencia empírica respecto a dos tendencias que actualmente confluyen en las investigaciones sobre colaboración entre pares: (a) el énfasis puesto en el microanálisis de la interacción y (b) el creciente interés en tareas colaborativas expresivas o libres, diferentes a las tareas tradicionalmente estudiadas (resolución de problemas y aprendizaje de nociones científicas y matemáticas). También, el trabajo aborda la interacción colaborativa a partir de la consideración integrada de acción y palabra, generalmente analizadas por separado.
Objective. This paper presents an exploratory and micro-analytical study of peer collaboration among children in a free drawing task. The characteristics of this process were also analyzed according to age group and socioeconomic context. Method. Cross-sectional research in which 82 children were grouped into 41 dyads. They were 4-, 8- and 12-years-old, belonging to advantaged and disadvantaged socioeconomic contexts. Each dyad performed a collaborative free drawing task. The main instrument was observation. The interaction was analyzed from two approaches: social modality of execution, and specific verbalization. Each approach was coded by a different system of categories. The data was processed by factorial and cluster analysis. Results. Data showed three global interactive modalities: dissociative (mainly associated with 4-years-old dyads), mixed (collaborative-asymmetrical) and cooperative (the last two mainly associated with 8- and 12-years-old dyads). Also detected were specific associations between mixed modality - disadvantaged context and cooperative modality - advantaged contexts. Conclusion. The study offers new evidence on two main issues in recent studies on peer collaboration: a) the focus on the micro-analysis of interaction; b) the growing interest on more open-ended tasks compared to traditionally addressed tasks (problem solving and tasks in science or mathematics). Also, the current paper allows analyzing action and language jointly in collaborative interaction, considering that they were studied separately in most of investigations.
Escopo. Fazer um estudo exploratório e microanalítico da interação colaborativa infantil entre pares, na realização de desenhos livres (tarefa de final aberto). Analisar as características diferenciais de dito processo em função do grupo etário e do contexto socioeconómico. Metodologia. Estudo evolutivo transversal donde participaram 82 crianças agrupadas em 41 díades, de 4, 8 e 12 anos de idade e pertencentes a contextos socioeconómicos favorecido e desfavorecido. Cada uma das díades fez um desenho livre colaborativo. O instrumento utilizado foi a observação. A interação foi analisada desde duas perspectivas: modalidade social de execução da tarefa e verbalização específica. Em cada caso foi aplicado um sistema de categoria diferente. Os dados resultantes foram processados mediante técnicas de análise fatorial e de classificação. Resultados. Foram evidenciadas três modalidades interativas gerais: dissociativa (associada maiormente a díades de 4 anos de idade), mista (colaborativa-assimétrica) e cooperativa (as duas últimas maiormente associadas a díades de 8 e 12 anos de idade). Também foram detectados associações específicas entre modalidade mista -contexto desfavorecido e modalidade cooperativa- contexto favorecido. Conclusão. O trabalho aporta nova evidencia empírica respeito a duas tendências que atualmente confluem nas pesquisas sobre colaboração entre pares: a) o ênfase posto no microanálise da interação; b)o crescente interesse em tarefas colaborativas expressivas ou livres, diferente das tarefas tradicionalmente estudadas (resolução de problemas e aprendizagem de noções científicas e matemáticas). Também, o trabalho aborda a interação colaborativa a partir da consideração integrada de ação e palavra, geralmente analisadas por separado.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Desarrollo Infantil , Conducta Cooperativa , Niño , Factores SocioeconómicosRESUMEN
This experimental study approaches characteristics of three university teachers' classes with different levels of experience. According to the literature, experienced teachers more often than not are adaptable to different contexts. However, novice teachers are usually focused on specific class contents to be evaluated. Three teachers were selected, a Professor, and two Assistants (a university level one and an undergraduate). We gave them a source text to teach 10 students each one. After that, students' knowledge was evaluated with a post-test and a self-evaluation. The characteristics of the three classes were evaluated by external judges and the students themselves. Moreover, theme and sequential submission analyses following the source text were made. Results show differences in each of the analyzed aspects according to the literature.(AU)
O objetivo deste estudo foi relacionar a experiência dos docentes com a apresentação dos conteúdos e a aprendizagem de estudantes no nível universitário. É de se esperar que professores com mais experiência educacional sejam adaptáveis a novos contextos e que não apenas ensinem conteúdos a serem avaliados posteriormente. Metodologicamente, o projeto teve esquema quase-experimental tipo pré-teste/pós-teste. Foram escolhidos três professores de Ciências Exatas: professor experiente, auxiliar com nível superior e auxiliar estudante. Um texto-fonte lhes foi entregue com os conteúdos que deveriam ser ensinados a dez estudantes. As características do ensino foram analisadas quanto ao ajuste das aulas ao texto-fonte e avaliadas por juízes externos à pesquisa e pelos próprios estudantes. A aprendizagem dos conceitos foi avaliada por um pós-teste e uma autoavaliação dos estudantes, ambos de múltipla escolha. Apresentaram-se diferenças nos aspectos analisados nas aulas estudadas. A análise realizada permite evidenciar diferenças nos papéis, possibilitando fortalecer, assim, aspetos diferentes das aprendizagens dos estudantes em futuras aulas que venham a ministrar.(AU)
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Conocimiento , Enseñanza , AprendizajeRESUMEN
This experimental study approaches characteristics of three university teachers' classes with different levels of experience. According to the literature, experienced teachers more often than not are adaptable to different contexts. However, novice teachers are usually focused on specific class contents to be evaluated. Three teachers were selected, a Professor, and two Assistants (a university level one and an undergraduate). We gave them a source text to teach 10 students each one. After that, students' knowledge was evaluated with a post-test and a self-evaluation. The characteristics of the three classes were evaluated by external judges and the students themselves. Moreover, theme and sequential submission analyses following the source text were made. Results show differences in each of the analyzed aspects according to the literature...
O objetivo deste estudo foi relacionar a experiência dos docentes com a apresentação dos conteúdos e a aprendizagem de estudantes no nível universitário. É de se esperar que professores com mais experiência educacional sejam adaptáveis a novos contextos e que não apenas ensinem conteúdos a serem avaliados posteriormente. Metodologicamente, o projeto teve esquema quase-experimental tipo pré-teste/pós-teste. Foram escolhidos três professores de Ciências Exatas: professor experiente, auxiliar com nível superior e auxiliar estudante. Um texto-fonte lhes foi entregue com os conteúdos que deveriam ser ensinados a dez estudantes. As características do ensino foram analisadas quanto ao ajuste das aulas ao texto-fonte e avaliadas por juízes externos à pesquisa e pelos próprios estudantes. A aprendizagem dos conceitos foi avaliada por um pós-teste e uma autoavaliação dos estudantes, ambos de múltipla escolha. Apresentaram-se diferenças nos aspectos analisados nas aulas estudadas. A análise realizada permite evidenciar diferenças nos papéis, possibilitando fortalecer, assim, aspetos diferentes das aprendizagens dos estudantes em futuras aulas que venham a ministrar...
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Conocimiento , Aprendizaje , EnseñanzaRESUMEN
El conflicto sociocognitivo (CSC) ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado por medio de diseños experimentales de investigación como promotor del desarrollo en niños pequeños. En la actualidad, existe una línea de investigación que continúa esta orientación llevando el concepto al contexto del aprendizaje formal, dando lugar a diseños más variados. Sin embargo, muy pocas investigaciones hacen del CSC el eje de sus trabajos. El estudio que se informa buscó incentivar en díadas de estudiantes universitarios el CSC en el aprendizaje colaborativo de conceptos. Con el objetivo de evaluar las producciones escritas que los alumnos realizaban durante el aprendizaje y el efecto de aprendizaje logrado, se constituyeron tres grupos: uno experimental, formado por díadas colaborativas que fueron intervenidas por el investigador y dos grupos control (uno constituido por díadas que también trabajaron colaborativamente pero sin intervención y otro, por sujetos que trabajaron solos y que tampoco fueron intervenidos). La muestra estuvo constituida por 120 sujetos, 60 alumnos de ciencias exactas (Física) y 60 alumnos de ciencias sociales (Psicología). Todos ellos eran estudiantes de primer año. Se elaboraron cuestionarios y textos y se trabajó con un diseño de tipo experimental ‘pre-test individual / intervención sobre la colaboración sociocognitiva / pos-test individual’, estando el incentivo del CSC a cargo de un investigador que garantizaba la simetría de la participación, la evaluación mutua y la explicitación de las diferencias cognitivas. Los resultados muestran que el incentivo del CSC es altamente eficaz en relación a las dos variables dependientes estudiadas: el aprendizaje logrado y la producción escrita; un efecto no esperado fue la mayor homogeneidad de los aprendizajes en las díadas intervenidas.
Socio-cognitive conflict (SCC) has been defined as the exchange of different points of view when two or more people are working in a task together. It is cognitive because the points of view are intellectually supported and social because it takes place during an interaction. The concept of SCC was developed in the Geneva School of Educational Social Psychology and has been traditionally studied as an important factor in children development. These original studies were made using an experimental methodology, with samples of children between 6 and 7 years old. The basic learning tasks evaluated were piagetian tasks of conservation, for example, with liquids, length, quantity, etc. Nowadays, there is a new research field which takes this approach to study the SCC concept in formal learning contexts. This gave place to more varied designs. However, not many designs take SCC as their central aspect. The present study focuses on developing the SCC in pairs of university students using a pretest / post test experimental design. The collaborative learning environment is particularly critical for SCC to take place. This scenario is appropriate for the development of SCC because when pairs are working together sharing the same goal, the interaction increases. In this study the intervention focused on three signs of SCC: symmetry, peer evaluation and the cognitive differences between students. Researchers regulated a ‘symmetrical’ participation encouraging both students to participate in a similar amount of times and tasks. ‘Peer evaluation’ takes place when both students express their agreement or disagreement with the other one’s speech. Researchers also asked students to express their disagreements even if they were shown as non-verbal expressions to increase the cognitive differences between them. In other words, the intervention was not focused on teaching concepts (as professors usually do in their classes); the goal was to guarantee the interaction between the students themselves. In order to evaluate the effect of the intervention on learning and on the interaction processes, three groups of students were constituted. One of them was the experimental group which was constituted by pairs who received the intervention of a researcher. The other two groups were control groups: one of them was integrated by pairs of students who worked independently, and the other one, by participants who worked alone. The sample had 120 participants, 60 students of an exact science career and 60 of a social science career. All students were in the first year of university. Post test evaluations show that encouraging SCC is effective in academic learning. In the experimental group there was more symmetry in participation and homogeneity in the learning process. In addition the written productions in this group were more complete, coherent, and logically structured than the control groups’ productions. Educational implications for university level are discussed. These kinds of results are important because they could be used as an instrument for the classroom organization. It is also important as an example to consider ways to develop (especially with the university students), skills like dialogue, mutual understanding, team work, cognitive explanation, peer evaluation, self-evaluation, and respect for peers’ points of view. All these skills can be developed with teachers who are interested in increasing SCC in collaborative learning environments.
RESUMEN
El conflicto sociocognitivo (CSC) ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado por medio de diseños experimentales de investigación como promotor del desarrollo en niños pequeños. En la actualidad, existe una línea de investigación que continúa esta orientación llevando el concepto al contexto del aprendizaje formal, dando lugar a diseños más variados. Sin embargo, muy pocas investigaciones hacen del CSC el eje de sus trabajos. El estudio que se informa buscó incentivar en díadas de estudiantes universitarios el CSC en el aprendizaje colaborativo de conceptos. Con el objetivo de evaluar las producciones escritas que los alumnos realizaban durante el aprendizaje y el efecto de aprendizaje logrado, se constituyeron tres grupos: uno experimental, formado por díadas colaborativas que fueron intervenidas por el investigador y dos grupos control (uno constituido por díadas que también trabajaron colaborativamente pero sin intervención y otro, por sujetos que trabajaron solos y que tampoco fueron intervenidos). La muestra estuvo constituida por 120 sujetos, 60 alumnos de ciencias exactas (Física) y 60 alumnos de ciencias sociales (Psicología). Todos ellos eran estudiantes de primer año. Se elaboraron cuestionarios y textos y se trabajó con un diseño de tipo experimental ‘pre-test individual / intervención sobre la colaboración sociocognitiva / pos-test individual’, estando el incentivo del CSC a cargo de un investigador que garantizaba la simetría de la participación, la evaluación mutua y la explicitación de las diferencias cognitivas. Los resultados muestran que el incentivo del CSC es altamente eficaz en relación a las dos variables dependientes estudiadas: el aprendizaje logrado y la producción escrita; un efecto no esperado fue la mayor homogeneidad de los aprendizajes en las díadas intervenidas.(AU)
Socio-cognitive conflict (SCC) has been defined as the exchange of different points of view when two or more people are working in a task together. It is cognitive because the points of view are intellectually supported and social because it takes place during an interaction. The concept of SCC was developed in the Geneva School of Educational Social Psychology and has been traditionally studied as an important factor in children development. These original studies were made using an experimental methodology, with samples of children between 6 and 7 years old. The basic learning tasks evaluated were piagetian tasks of conservation, for example, with liquids, length, quantity, etc. Nowadays, there is a new research field which takes this approach to study the SCC concept in formal learning contexts. This gave place to more varied designs. However, not many designs take SCC as their central aspect. The present study focuses on developing the SCC in pairs of university students using a pretest / post test experimental design. The collaborative learning environment is particularly critical for SCC to take place. This scenario is appropriate for the development of SCC because when pairs are working together sharing the same goal, the interaction increases. In this study the intervention focused on three signs of SCC: symmetry, peer evaluation and the cognitive differences between students. Researchers regulated a ‘symmetrical’ participation encouraging both students to participate in a similar amount of times and tasks. ‘Peer evaluation’ takes place when both students express their agreement or disagreement with the other one’s speech. Researchers also asked students to express their disagreements even if they were shown as non-verbal expressions to increase the cognitive differences between them. In other words, the intervention was not focused on teaching concepts (as professors usually do in their classes); the goal was to guarantee the interaction between the students themselves. In order to evaluate the effect of the intervention on learning and on the interaction processes, three groups of students were constituted. One of them was the experimental group which was constituted by pairs who received the intervention of a researcher. The other two groups were control groups: one of them was integrated by pairs of students who worked independently, and the other one, by participants who worked alone. The sample had 120 participants, 60 students of an exact science career and 60 of a social science career. All students were in the first year of university. Post test evaluations show that encouraging SCC is effective in academic learning. In the experimental group there was more symmetry in participation and homogeneity in the learning process. In addition the written productions in this group were more complete, coherent, and logically structured than the control groups’ productions. Educational implications for university level are discussed. These kinds of results are important because they could be used as an instrument for the classroom organization. It is also important as an example to consider ways to develop (especially with the university students), skills like dialogue, mutual understanding, team work, cognitive explanation, peer evaluation, self-evaluation, and respect for peers’ points of view. All these skills can be developed with teachers who are interested in increasing SCC in collaborative learning environments.(AU)
RESUMEN
Aprendizaje colaborativo y representación social son dos conceptos de fuerte vigencia en la psicología educacional y la psicología social, respectivamente. Aunque la producción bibliográfica es muy vasta en ambos casos, las posibilidades y beneficios de un acercamiento conceptual no han sido advertidos, seguramente por corresponder a desarrollos epistemológicos independientes. Sin embargo, ambos conceptos aluden a la construcción de conocimientos en y a través de la interacción social, por lo que puede reconocérseles una identidad socioconstructivista. Pero también hay diferencias intrínsecas entre ambos conceptos: uno está focalizado en el conocimiento científico y el otro en el conocimiento de sentido común. En relación a esto se analiza el problema del cambio conceptual que, a la luz del reconocimiento de un doble sistema representacional, adquiere una nueva inteligibilidad.
This contribution deals with some links between CLT (Collaborative learning) and SRT (Social representation) on the assumption that there is a conceptual identity between both perspectives. This identity concern a common socioconstructivist framework: knowledge is viewed as a socially shared cognition. The present contribution analyses some common traits of CLT and SRT as a consequence of this constructivist view. Finally the paper focuses on the intrinsic conflict between CLT and SRT concerning the conceptual change in educational settings. In one way it is clear that the conceptual change toward a scientific knowledge is an objective of all educational action, but it is true that this change is not easy because the resistance of learners to surmount the common sense supported by the socio-representational knowledge.
